Abstract This review focuses on the occurrence and distribution of 17 targeted human pharmaceutical compounds from the most common therapeutic classes. These include one analgesic (acetaminophen), three non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) (acetylsalicylic acid, diclofenac, ibuprofen), two antidiabetic drugs (gliclazide, metformin), three antihistamines (cetirizine, chlorphenamine, ranitidine), four antihypertensives (amlodipine, atenolol, metoprolol, prazosin), one lipid regulator (simvastatin), one anti-convulsant (carbamazepine), one bronchodilator agent (salbutamol) and one stimulant (caffeine) which have been detected globally in various aquatic environmental matrices such as surface water, drinking water, ground water, seawater, influent and effluent of municipal wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs), hospital and industrial treatment plants, among others. The most common analytical method used involved solid phase extraction (SPE) and liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry. The concentrations of all drugs investigated in all aqueous matrices varied from 0.5 to 85,000 ng/L for the highest concentration in the aqueous matrices in Southeast Asia. This review provides the first compilation on human pharmaceuticals in Southeast Asia in surface water, domestic wastewater (influent and effluent) and drinking water.

Resumen Esta revisión se centró en la aparición y distribución de 17 fármacos de uso humano pertenecientes a las clases terapéuticas más comunes y consiste en un analgésico (acetaminofeno), tres medicamentos antiinflamatorios no esteroideos (AINE) (ácido acetilsalicílico, diclofenaco, ibuprofeno), dos antidiabéticos (gliclazida, metformina), tres antihistamínicos (cetirizina, clorfenamina, ranitidina), cuatro antihipertensivos ( atenolol, metoprolol, prazosina), un regulador de lípidos (simvastatina), un anticonvulsivo (carbamazepina), un agente broncodilatador (salbutamol) y un estimulante (cafeína), y que se han detectado globalmente en varios tipos de matrices ambientales acuáticas como el agua superficial, agua potable, agua subterránea, agua de mar, afluente y efluente de plantas de tratamiento de aguas residuales municipales (EDAR), plantas de tratamiento hospitalarias e industriales entre otras. El método analítico más utilizado involucró extracción en fase sólida (SPE) y cromatografía líquida acoplada a espectrometría de masas. Las concentraciones de todos los fármacos investigados en todas las matrices acuosas variaron de 0,5 a 85.000 ng / L, y presentaron la concentración más alta en las matrices acuosas en el país del sudeste asiático. Esta revisión proporciona el primer informe recopilatorio sobre un estudio de productos farmacéuticos humanos que se ha realizado en el sudeste asiático y se centra en aguas superficiales, aguas residuales domésticas (afluentes y efluentes) y agua potable.

External Quality Assessment (EQA) surveys performed by the World Health Organization Regional Office for Africa (WHO AFRO) revealed the need for the strengthening of public health microbiology laboratories, particularly for testing of epidemic-prone diseases in the African Region. These surveys revealed common issues such as supply chain management, skilled personnel, logistical support and overall lack of quality standards. For sustainable improvements to health systems as well as global health security, deficiencies identified need to be actively corrected through robust quality assurance programmes and implementation of laboratory quality management systems. Given all the pathogens of public health importance, an external quality assessment programme with a focus on vaccine-preventable diseases and emerging and re-emerging dangerous pathogens is important, and should not be stand-alone, but integrated within laboratory networks as seen in polio, measles, yellow fever and rubella. In 2015, WHO AFRO collaborated with the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, the London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine and partners in a series of consultations with countries and national and regional EQA providers for the development of quality assurance models to support HIV point-of-care testing and monitoring. These consultations revealed similar challenges as seen in the WHO AFRO surveys. WHO AFRO brought forth its experience in implementing quality standards for health programmes, and also opened discussions on how lessons learned through such established programmes can be utilised to supporting and strengthening the introduction of early infant diagnosis of HIV and viral load point-of-care testing. An optimised external quality assessment programme will impact the ability of countries to meet core capacities, providing improved quality management systems, improving the confidence of diagnostic network services in Africa, and including capacities to detect events of international public health importance.

BACKGROUND: The increase in disease burden has continued to weigh upon health systems in Africa. The role of the laboratory has become increasingly critical in the improvement of health for diagnosis, management and treatment of diseases. In response, the World Health Organization Regional Office for Africa (WHO AFRO) and its partners created the WHO AFRO Stepwise Laboratory (Quality) Improvement Process Towards Accreditation (SLIPTA) program. SLIPTA IMPLEMENTATION PROCESS: WHO AFRO defined a governance structure with roles and responsibilities for six main stakeholders. Laboratories were evaluated by auditors trained and certified by the African Society for Laboratory Medicine. Laboratory performance was measured using the WHO AFRO SLIPTA scoring checklist and recognition certificates rated with 1-5 stars were issued. PRELIMINARY RESULTS: By March 2015, 27 of the 47 (57%) WHO AFRO member states had appointed a SLIPTA focal point and 14 Ministers of Health had endorsed SLIPTA as the desired programme for continuous quality improvement. Ninety-eight auditors from 17 African countries, competent in the Portuguese (3), French (12) and English (83) languages, were trained and certified. The mean score for the 159 laboratories audited between May 2013 and March 2015 was 69% (median 70%; SD 11.5; interquartile range 62-77). Of these audited laboratories, 70% achieved 55% compliance or higher (2 or more stars) and 1% scored at least 95% (5 stars). The lowest scoring sections of the WHO AFRO SLIPTA checklist were sections 6 (Internal Audit) and 10 (Corrective Action), which both had mean scores below 50%. CONCLUSION: The WHO AFRO SLIPTA is a process that countries with limited resources can adopt for effective implementation of quality management systems. Political commitment, ownership and investment in continuous quality improvement are integral components of the process.

OBJECTIVE: To describe findings from an external quality assessment programme involving laboratories in Africa that routinely investigate epidemic-prone diseases. METHODS: Beginning in 2002, the Regional Office for Africa of the World Health Organization (WHO) invited national public health laboratories and related facilities in Africa to participate in the programme. Three surveys comprising specimens and questionnaires associated with bacterial enteric diseases, bacterial meningitis, plague, tuberculosis and malaria were sent annually to test participants' diagnostic proficiency. Identical surveys were sent to referee laboratories for quality control. Materials were prepared, packaged and shipped in accordance with standard protocols. Findings and reports were due within 30 days. Key methodological decisions and test results were categorized as acceptable or unacceptable on the basis of consensus feedback from referees, using established grading schemes. FINDINGS: Between 2002 and 2009, participation increased from 30 to 48 Member States of the WHO and from 39 to 78 laboratories. Each survey was returned by 64-93% of participants. Mean turnaround time was 25.9 days. For bacterial enteric diseases and meningitis components, bacterial identification was acceptable in 65% and 69% of challenges, respectively, but serotyping and antibiotic susceptibility testing and reporting were frequently unacceptable. Microscopy was acceptable for 73% of plague challenges. Tuberculosis microscopy was satisfactorily performed, with 87% of responses receiving acceptable scores. In the malaria component, 82% of responses received acceptable scores for species identification but only 51% of parasite quantitation scores were acceptable. CONCLUSION: The external quality assessment programme consistently identified certain functional deficiencies requiring strengthening that were present in African public health microbiology laboratories.

OBJETIVO: Describir los resultados de un programa de evaluación externa de la calidad de los laboratorios africanos que investigan habitualmente las enfermedades con tendencia a provocar epidemias. MÉTODOS: En el año 2002, la Oficina Regional para África de la Organización Mundial de la Salud (OMS) invitó a los laboratorios nacionales de la sanidad pública así como a los centros relacionados de África a participar en el programa. Con el fin de comprobar la capacidad de diagnóstico de los participantes, se les enviaron anualmente tres encuestas con muestras y cuestionarios relacionados con enfermedades enterobacterianas, meningitis bacteriana, peste, tuberculosis y malaria. Con el fin de realizar un control de calidad, se enviaron las mismas encuestas a los laboratorios evaluadores. Los materiales se prepararon, empaquetaron y enviaron de acuerdo con los protocolos estándar. Los resultados y las encuestas debían estar listos en un plazo de 30 días. Las principales decisiones metodológicas y los resultados de las pruebas se clasificaron como aceptables o inaceptables en base a la respuesta consensuada de los evaluadores por medio de los programas de calificación establecidos. RESULTADOS: La participación aumentó desde 30 hasta 48 Estados Miembros de la OMS y desde 39 hasta 78 laboratorios entre los años 2002 y 2009. Entre un 64 y un 93% de los participantes remitieron cada una de las encuestas y el plazo medio de entrega fue de 25,9 días. En los casos de enfermedades enterobacterianas y de meningitis, la identificación bacteriana fue aceptable en un 65% y un 69% de los casos, respectivamente, si bien las pruebas y los resultados de serotipado y de sensibilidad a los antibióticos fueron, con frecuencia, inaceptables. La microscopía resultó aceptable en el 73% de las pruebas de peste. La microscopía de tuberculosis se realizó de manera satisfactoria: un 87% de las respuestas obtuvo resultados aceptables. En el componente de la malaria, un 82% de las respuestas obtuvieron puntuaciones aceptables en cuanto a la identificación de la especie, pero solo el 51% de las puntuaciones para la cuantificación de parásitos resultó aceptable. CONCLUSIÓN: El programa de evaluación externa de la calidad identificó de manera sistemática algunas deficiencias funcionales que

OBJECTIF: Décrire les résultats d'un programme d'évaluation externe de la qualité impliquant des laboratoires africains étudiant de matière systématique les maladies à potentiel épidémique. MÉTHODES: Dès 2002, le Bureau régional pour l'Afrique de l'Organisation mondiale de la Santé (OMS) a invité les laboratoires de santé publique nationaux et des installations connexes en Afrique à participer au programme. Trois études comprenant des échantillons et des questionnaires associés aux maladies entériques bactériennes, à la méningite bactérienne, à la peste, à la tuberculose et au paludisme ont été envoyés chaque année pour tester la qualité du diagnostic des participants. Des études identiques ont été envoyées à des laboratoires arbitres pour le contrôle de la qualité. Les matériaux ont été préparés, emballés et expédiés conformément aux protocoles standard. Les résultats et les rapports devaient parvenir dans les 30 jours. Les principales décisions méthodologiques et les résultats des tests ont été qualifiés d'acceptables ou d'inacceptables, sur la base des commentaires consensuels des arbitres, utilisant des schémas de notation établis. RÉSULTATS: Entre 2002 et 2009, la participation est passée de 30 à 48 États membres de l'OMS, et de 39 à 78 laboratoires. Chaque étude a été renvoyée par 64 à 93% des participants. Le délai moyen était de 25,9 jours. Pour les maladies entériques bactériennes et les composants de la méningite, l'identification bactérienne était acceptable dans 65% et 69% des tests, respectivement, mais le sérotypage et les tests de sensibilité aux antibiotiques, ainsi que les rapports, étaient souvent inacceptables. La microscopie était acceptable dans 73% des tests de peste. La microscopie de la tuberculose était effectuée de manière satisfaisante, 87% des réponses obtenant des scores acceptables. Dans la composante paludisme, 82% des réponses ont obtenu des scores acceptables pour l'identification des espèces, mais seuls 51% des scores de quantification des parasites étaient acceptables. CONCLUSION: Le programme externe d'évaluation de la qualité a identifié de manière constante certaines déficiences fonctionnelles nécessitant une amélioration, dans les laboratoires de microbiologie du système de santé publique africain.